Keywords

Prazosin α₁-adrenergic receptors mast cell-stabilizing property rat peritoneal mast cells exocytosis membrane capacitance

Abstract

Background/Aims:

Adrenaline quickly inhibits the release of histamine from mast cells. Besides β₂-adrenergic receptors, several in vitro studies also indicate the involvement of α-adrenergic receptors in the process of exocytosis. Since exocytosis in mast cells can be detected electrophysiologically by the changes in the membrane capacitance (Cm), its continuous monitoring in the presence of drugs would determine their mast cell-stabilizing properties.

Methods:

Employing the whole-cell patch-clamp technique in rat peritoneal mast cells, we examined the effects of adrenaline on the degranulation of mast cells and the increase in the Cm during exocytosis. We also examined the degranulation of mast cells in the presence or absence of α-adrenergic receptor agonists or antagonists.

Results:

Adrenaline dose-dependently suppressed the GTP-γ-S-induced increase in the Cm and inhibited the degranulation from mast cells, which was almost completely erased in the presence of butoxamine, a β₂-adrenergic receptor antagonist. Among α-adrenergic receptor agonists or antagonists, high dose prazosin, a selective α₁-adrenergic receptor antagonist, significantly reduced the ratio of degranulating mast cells and suppressed the increase in the Cm.

Conclusion:

This study provided electrophysiological evidence for the first time that adrenaline dose-dependently inhibited the process of exocytosis, confirming its usefulness as a potent mast cell-stabilizer. The pharmacological blockade of α₁-adrenergic receptor by prazosin synergistically potentiated such mast cell-stabilizing property of adrenaline, which is primarily mediated by β₂-adrenergic receptors.

Introduction

Anaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction and a potentially life-threatening acute multisystem syndrome caused by the sudden release of mast cell-derived mediators [1]. In the treatment, adrenaline, a non-specific adrenergic receptor agonist, is the first-choice drug, since it immediately suppresses further release of chemical mediators from mast cells [2]. Concerning the mechanisms, β₂-adrenergic receptors are considered to be primarily responsible, because the stimulation of these receptors strongly inhibits FcεRI (high affinity receptors for IgE)-dependent calcium mobilization in the cells [3]. Previously, several in vitro studies also demonstrated the presence of α-adrenergic receptors in mast cells [4] and indicated their involvement in the activation of the cells [5, 6]. Based on these findings, later in vivo studies actually showed the therapeutic efficacy of prazosin, a specific α₁-adrenergic receptor antagonist, for the histamine-induced bronchoconstriction in patients with asthma [7, 8]. To determine the effects of adrenaline or α-adrenergic receptor agonists/antagonists on the stabilization of mast cells, previous in vitro studies measured the drug-induced changes in histamine release from mast cells [6, 9-11]. However, they were not enough to monitor the whole process of exocytosis, since mast cells also release fibrogenic factors, growth factors and inflammatory cytokines in addition to chemical mediators [12]. In our series of patch-clamp studies, by detecting the changes in whole-cell membrane capacitance (Cm) in mast cells, we provided electrophysiological evidence that anti-allergic drugs, anti-microbial drugs, corticosteroids and food constituents inhibit the process of exocytosis, and thus exert mast cell-stabilizing properties [13-17]. In the present study, employing the same standard patch-clamp whole-cell recording technique in rat peritoneal mast cells, we examined the effects of adrenaline on the changes in the Cm to quantitatively determine its ability to stabilize mast cells. Additionally, we examined the effects of α-adrenergic receptor agonists or antagonists on the degranulation of mast cells to determine their involvement in the stabilization of mast cells. Here, this study provides electrophysiological evidence for the first time that adrenaline dose-dependently inhibits the process of exocytosis, confirming its usefulness as a potent mast cell-stabilizer. This study also shows that the pharmacological blockade of α₁-adrenergic receptor by prazosin synergistically potentiates such mast cell-stabilizing property of adrenaline, which is primarily mediated by β₂-adrenergic receptors.

Materials and Methods

Cell Sources and Preparation
Male Wistar rats no less than 25 weeks old were purchased from Japan SLC Inc. (Shizuoka, Japan). We profoundly anaesthetized the rats with isoflurane and sacrificed them by cervical dislocation. The protocols for the use of animals were approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine and Miyagi University. As previously described [13-18], we washed rat peritoneum using standard external (bathing) solution which consists of (in mM): NaCl, 145; KCl, 4.0; CaCl₂, 1.0; MgCl₂, 2.0; HEPES, 5.0; bovine serum albumin, 0.01 % (pH 7.2 adjusted with NaOH) and isolated mast cells from the peritoneal cavity. We maintained the isolated mast cells at room temperature (22-24°C) to use within 8 hours. The suspension of mast cells was spread on a chamber placed on the headstage of an inverted microscope (Nikon, Tokyo, Japan). Mast cells were easy to distinguish from other cell types since they included characteristic secretory granules within the cells [13-16, 18].

Quantification of Mast Cell Degranulation
Adrenaline, purchased from Daiichi Sankyo, Inc. (Tokyo, Japan), dopamine, from Kyowa Hakko Kirin Co., Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan), phenylephrine hydrochloride, from Wako Pure Chem Ind. (Osaka, Japan), clonidine and yohimbine, from Tokyo Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan), were separately dissolved in the external solution at final concentrations of 1, 10, 100 μM and 1 mM. Prazosin hydrochloride, purchased from Tokyo Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. was dissolved at final concentrations of 0.01, 0.1, 1 μM. Butoxamine hydrochloride, purchased from Sigma Aldrich Co. (St. Louis, MO, USA), or prazosin was also dissolved in the external solution containing 1 mM adrenaline at the final concentrations of 1 mM or 1 μM, respectively. After we incubated mast cells in these solutions or a solution without the reagents, exocytosis was externally induced by compound 48/80 (Sigma-Aldrich; final concentration 10 μg/ml) [13-18]. We obtained bright-field images from randomly chosen 0.1-mm² fields of view (10 views from each condition), as we described previously [13-18]. We counted degranulated mast cells (definition; cells surrounded by more than 8 granules outside the cell membrane) and calculated their ratio to all mast cells.

Electrical Setup and Membrane Capacitance Measurements
As we described in our previous studies [13-18], we employed an EPC-9 patch-clamp amplifier system (HEKA Electronics, Lambrecht, Germany) and conducted standard whole-cell patch-clamp recordings. Briefly, we maintained the patch pipette resistance between 4-6 MΩ when plugged with internal (patch pipette) solution which consists of (in mM): K-glutamate, 145; MgCl₂, 2.0; Hepes, 5.0 (pH 7.2 adjusted with KOH). We added 100 μM guanosine 5’-o-(3-thiotriphosphate) (GTP-γ-S) (EMD Bioscience Inc., La Jolla, CA, USA) into the internal solution to endogenously induce exocytosis in mast cells [13-18]. We induced a giga-seal formation on a single mast cell spread in the external solutions containing no drug, different concentrations of adrenaline or dopamine (1, 10, 100 μM and 1 mM). Then we briefly sucked the pipette to rupture the patch membrane and perfused GTP-γ-S into the cells. We maintained the series resistance below 10 MΩ during the whole-cell recordings. To monitor the membrane capacitance of mast cells, we conducted a sine plus DC protocol employing the Lock-in amplifier of an EPC-9 Pulse program. We superimposed an 800-Hz sinusoidal command voltage on the holding potential of -80 mV. We continuously monitored the membrane capacitance (Cm), membrane conductance (Gm) and series conductance (Gs) during the whole-cell recording configuration. We performed all experiments at room temperature.

Statistical Analyses
Data were analyzed using PulseFit software (HEKA Electronics, Lambrecht, Germany) and Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, Wash., USA) and reported as means ± SEM. Statistical significance was assessed by two-way ANOVA. A value of p < 0.05 was considered significant.

Results

Effects of adrenaline and dopamine on degranulation of rat peritoneal mast cells
Mast cells incubated in the external solution with compound 48/80 (10 μg/ml) showed more wrinkles on their cell surface than those incubated without the compound (Fig. 1Ab vs. a). They released more secretory granules due to exocytosis (Fig. 1Ab). Mast cells that were pre-incubated with relatively lower doses of adrenaline, a non-selective agonist of adrenergic receptors (1, 10 μM; Fig. 1Ac, d), showed similar findings to those that were incubated in the external solution alone (Fig. 1Ab). However, mast cells pre-incubated with relatively higher doses of adrenaline (100 μM, 1 mM; Fig. 1Ae, f) did not show such findings characteristic to exocytosis. On the other hand, almost all mast cells that were pre-incubated with dopamine, a non-selective agonist of dopamine receptors (1, 10, 100 μM and 1 mM), showed typical findings of exocytosis regardless of their concentrations (Fig. 1Ag to j).
To quantitatively determine such effects of adrenaline and dopamine on exocytosis, we then counted the numbers of degranulating mast cells and calculated their ratio to all mast cells (Fig. 1B and C). In the absence of adrenaline, compound 48/80 caused degranulation in 80.0 ± 1.4 % of the entire mast cells (n=10; Fig. 1B). Relatively lower concentrations of adrenaline (1, 10 μM) significantly decreased the number of degranulating mast cells dose-dependently (1 μM, 63.9 ± 2.3 %, n=15, p < 0.05; 10 μM, 56.7 ± 5.4 %, n=14, p < 0.05; Fig. 1B). Additionally, with higher concentrations (100 μM, 1 mM), adrenaline markedly reduced the numbers of degranulating mast cells (100 μM, 32.9 ± 2.1 %, n=14, p < 0.05; 1 mM, 24.1 ± 2.3 %, n=13, p < 0.05; Fig. 1B). Differing from adrenaline, dopamine did not significantly affect the numbers of degranulating mast cells regardless of their concentrations (Fig. 1C). From these results, consistent with the previous findings [9, 10], adrenaline, which suppresses the release of histamine, actually inhibited the degranulation of rat peritoneal mast cells dose-dependently.

Effects of adrenaline and dopamine on whole-cell membrane capacitance in rat peritoneal mast cells
In our previous studies, microscopic changes in megakaryocyte or lymphocyte membranes were accurately monitored by measuring the whole-cell membrane capacitance (Cm) [19-26]. Of note, in mast cells, the process of degranulation during exocytosis was successively monitored by the increase in the Cm [13-18, 27, 28]. Hence, in our study, to quantitatively examine the effects of adrenaline or dopamine on the process of exocytosis, we pre-incubated mast cells in adrenaline- or dopamine- containing external solutions and measured the changes in Cm (Fig. 2 and 3). In these figures, we showed the effects of 1, 10, 100 μM and 1 mM adrenaline (Fig. 2) and dopamine (Fig. 3) on the Cm, Gs and Gm. Table 1 summarizes the changes in the Cm. Representing the endogenous induction of exocytosis [13-16, 18, 29, 30], the internal addition of GTP-γ-S into mast cells markedly increased the value of Cm (from 9.29 ± 0.37 to 34.0 ± 2.79 pF, n=9, p < 0.05; Table 1).
When mast cells were pre-incubated with lower doses of adrenaline (1, 10 μM), the addition of GTP-γ-S tended to increase the Cm similarly to that of mast cells pre-incubated with the external solution alone (Fig. 2A and B). However, compared to the external solution alone, the increase in the Cm (⊿Cm) was significantly suppressed (1 μM, 17.5 ± 6.83 pF, n=6, p < 0.05; 10 μM, 19.0 ± 2.03 pF, n=7, p < 0.05; Table 1). With higher doses (100 μM, 1 mM), adrenaline more markedly suppressed the GTP-γ-S-induced increase in the Cm (Fig. 2C and D; 100 μM, 7.61 ± 2.49 pF, n=8, p < 0.05; 1 mM, 5.41 ± 2.90 pF, n=6, p < 0.05; Table 1). In contrast, pre-incubation with dopamine did not significantly affect the the GTP-γ-S-induced increase in the Cm regardless of its concentrations (Fig. 3, Table 1). These results provided electrophysiological evidence for the first time that adrenaline inhibits the exocytotic process of mast cells dose-dependently. This strongly supported our findings that were obtained from Fig. 1.

Effects of β₂-adrenergic receptor antagonist on adrenaline-induced inhibition of mast cell degranulation
Mast cells express numerous receptors on their cell surface that transduce stimulatory or inhibitory signals for degranulation [31, 32]. Among them, β₂-adrenergic receptor is the major one that transduces inhibitory signals for exocytosis [3]. Since adrenaline is one of the most potent non-specific stimulators of adrenergic receptors, we examined the involvement of this receptor-mediated pathway in the adrenaline-induced inhibition of exocytosis. Consistent with our findings obtained from Fig. 1A and B, pre-incubation with 1mM adrenaline halted the induction of exocytosis in mast cells (Fig. 4Ab vs. a) by markedly suppressing the numbers of degranulating cells (Fig. 4B). However, in the presence of 1 mM butoxamine, a specific β₂-adrenergic receptor antagonist, such inhibitory effect of adrenaline on exocytosis was almost completely erased (Fig. 4Ac and 4B). These results confirmed the previous findings in rat peritoneal mast cells that the stimulation of β₂-adrenergic receptors, which is linked to a cyclic AMP-dependent calcium mobilization via the coupling of G-proteins [33], is the major pathway for the adrenaline-induced inhibition of exocytosis [3].

Involvement of α-adrenergic receptors in degranulation of rat peritoneal mast cells
In addition to β₂-adrenergic receptors that transduce inhibitory signals for the degranulation of mast cells (Fig. 4), studies revealed the localization of α₁-adrenergic receptors on mast cell membranes [4] and also provided in vivo evidence for the presence of α₂-adrenergic receptors [11, 34]. To reveal the involvement of these adrenergic receptors in the degranulation of mast cells, we examined the effects of the receptor agonists or antagonists.

(I) Effects of α₁- or α₂-adrenergic receptor “agonists” on degranulation of rat peritoneal mast cells
Consistent with our results shown in Fig. 1B and C, compound 48/80 caused degranulation in 80.0 ± 1.4 % of the entire mast cells in the external solution alone (n=10; Fig. 5A). However, pre-incubation with 1, 10, 100 μM and 1 mM phenylephrine, a selective α₁-adrenergic receptor agonist, did not significantly affect the numbers of degranulating mast cells regardless of their concentrations (Fig. 5A). Similarly, pre-incubation with different concentrations of clonidine, a selective α₂-adrenergic receptor agonist, did not alter the ratio of degranulating mast cells, either (Fig. 5B).

(II) Effects of α₁- or α₂-adrenergic receptor “antagonists” on exocytosis of rat peritoneal mast cells
Since α₁- and α₂-adrenergic receptor agonists did not affect the process of exocytosis in mast cells (Fig. 5), we then examined the effects of α₁- and α₂-adrenergic receptor antagonists (Fig. 6). The physiological concentration of prazosin, a selective α₁-adrenergic receptor antagonist, is as low as between 2.60 and 26.0 nM in humans [35], which is by far lower than that of adrenaline, dopamine, phenylephrine and clonidine [36]. Additionally, in some in vitro studies, prazosin with concentrations as low as 0.1 μM was enough to exert inhibitory effects on the α₁-adrenergic receptor-mediated proliferation in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells [37]. Therefore, in the present study, we tried doses from as low as 0.01 up to 1 μM (Fig. 6A). Relatively lower doses, such as 0.01 and 0.1 μM, did not significantly affect the numbers of degranulating mast cells (Fig. 6Aa). However, 1 μM prazosin alone significantly reduced the ratio of degranulating mast cells compared to that of the external solution (from 84.5 ± 2.1 % to 64.7 ± 3.8 %, n=10, p < 0.05). In mast cells, the process of degranulation during exocytosis was monitored by the increase in the Cm [13-18, 27, 28]. Actually, in the present study, the ratio of degraunalting mast cells was well correlated with the GTP-γ-S-induced increase in the Cm (⊿Cm) (Fig. 1 to 3, Table 1). Therefore, we additionally examined the effects of prazosin on the ⊿Cm (Fig. 6Ab). Similarly to the ratio of degranulating mast cells (Fig. 6Aa), low dose prazosin did not significantly affect the ⊿Cm (Fig. 6Ab). However, 1 μM prazosin alone significantly decreased the ⊿Cm compared to that of the external solution (from 19.6 ± 2.38 pF to 10.4 ± 1.68 pF, n=6, p < 0.05; Fig. 6Ab). These results provided electrophysiological evidence that high dose prazosin can inhibit the process of exocytosis in mast cells. In contrast, however, yohimbine, a selective α₂-adrenergic receptor antagonist, did not affect the ratio of degranulating mast cells (Fig. 6B). These results suggested that the process of exocytosis in mast cells may be partially mediated by α₁-adrenergic receptors, but not by α₂-adrenergic receptors.

Effects of prazosin on adrenaline-induced inhibition of mast cell degranulation
From our results, since 1 μM prazosin inhibited the process of exocytosis in mast cells (Fig. 6A), we finally examined its effect on the adrenaline-induced inhibition of exocytosis (Fig. 7). Consistent with our results shown Fig. 1A and B, pre-incubation with 1mM adrenaline halted the induction of exocytosis (Fig. 7Ab vs. a) and markedly reduced the numbers of degranulating mast cells (Fig. 7B). In the presence of 1 μM prazosin, such inhibitory effect of adrenaline on exocytosis was augmented (Fig. 7B) and the induction of exocytosis was almost totally suppressed (Fig. 7Ac). These results suggested that the blockade of α₁-adrenergic receptors by prazosin can synergistically potentiate the β₂-adrenergic receptor-mediated inhibition of exocytosis in mast cells.

Discussion

For people experiencing anaphylaxis or those at risks of anaphylactic reaction, intramuscular injection of adrenaline, a non-selective agonist of β-adrenergic receptors, has been the first-choice of the treatment [2]. In previous studies, by measuring the amount of histamine released from mast cells, suppressive effects of adrenaline on the activation of mast cells were indirectly monitored [9, 10]. However, to precisely determine the ability of adrenaline on the stabilization of mast cells, the exocytotic process itself needs to be monitored, otherwise the release of all the chemical mediators or the inflammatory substances have to be evaluated. In our previous patch-clamp studies using rat peritoneal mast cells, the degranulating process during exocytosis was successively monitored by the gradual increase in the whole-cell Cm [15-18, 29, 38]. Employing this electrophysiological approach, our recent studies revealed the inhibitory effects of anti-allergic drugs, antibiotics, corticosteroids and food constituents, such as vitamins, on the exocytotic process of mast cells [13-17]. In these studies, the mast cell-stabilizing properties of the drugs were quantitatively determined by the suppressed value of Cm which is to be increased by the GTP-γ-S internalization [13, 14]. In the present study, applying the same approach, we provided direct evidence for the first time that adrenaline actually inhibits the process of exocytosis dose-dependently and thus exerts mast cell-stabilizing property.

The physiological concentration of adrenaline in the plasma is usually below 0.1 μM at the basal level [39, 40]. However, it reaches more than 0.3 μM up to 1.5 μM after intramuscular injection in the treatment of anaphylaxis [41, 42]. In the present study, 1 μM adrenaline significantly deceased the number of degranulating mast cells by approximately 20 % (Fig. 1B), which was consistent with the findings obtained from previous studies [9]. Additionally, we further revealed for the first time that adrenaline with higher doses, such as 10, 100 μM and 1 mM, more markedly suppressed the degranulation of mast cells dose-dependently (Fig. 1B). These findings could be clinically applied to the topical use of adrenaline on nasal mucosa [40], where higher concentrations are locally required before the drug is absorbed into the venous circulation by the transcellular diffusion [43]. In the present study, exocytosis was externally induced by compound 48/80 after pretreating mast cells with adrenaline. Similar to the antigen binding to IgE on mast cells that causes quick anaphylactic reaction, compound 48/80 initiates the degranulation of mast cells as immediately as 10 seconds after its addition [44]. Therefore, it would be difficult to examine the “therapeutic” effects of adrenaline on reversing the ongoing degranulation of mast cells. However, our study clearly demonstrated the “prophylactic” effects of adrenaline on suppressing the further initiation of exocytosis in mast cells. In our whole experiments, we used mast cells isolated from the peritoneal cavity of rats less than 25 weeks old, since mast cells isolated form these rats were viable enough to be easily induced exocytosis by the exogenous or endogenous pharmacological stimuli [13-17, 45].

In the present study, butoxamine, a β₂-adrenergic receptor antagonist, almost totally restored the adrenaline-induced inhibition of mast cell degranulation (Fig. 4). This confirmed the previous findings that β₂-adrenergic pathway is the major pathway in which adrenaline transduces inhibitory signals for the degranulation of mast cells [3, 33]. In addition to β₂-adrenergic receptors, previous in vitro studies demonstrated the expression of α₁-adrenergic receptors on mast cell membranes [4] or provided in vivo evidence indicating the presence of α₂-adrenergic receptors [11, 34]. There are two types of mast cells that exist throughout the body [46]. One is the connective tissue type, which primarily exists in loose connective tissues, such as peritoneal cavity or skin. The other is the mucosal type, which primarily exists airway or gastrointestinal mucosa. In contrast to β₂-adrenergic receptors that are expressed in both types of mast cells [47], α₁-adrenergic receptors were shown to be expressed in mast cells isolated from heart connective tissue [4]. However, several in vitro studies using α-adrenergic agonists functionally demonstrated the presence of α-adrenergic receptors in mucosal type mast cells, such as human lung mast cells [5]. From our results, α₂-adrenergic receptors were not likely to be involved in the process of exocytosis in mast cells, since both agonist and antagonist of the receptors did not affect the degranulation of mast cells (Fig. 5B and 6B). On the other hand, we noted for the first time that high dose prazosin, an α₁-adrenergic receptor antagonist, significantly suppressed the degranulation of mast cells (Fig. 6A) and synergistically potentiated the adrenaline-induced inhibition of exocytosis (Fig. 7). In previous in vitro studies using human lung mast cells, stimulation of α₁-adrenergic receptors increased the release of chemical mediators [5]. Based on this, later studies further demonstrated in humans that the pharmacological blockade of α₁-adrenergic receptors actually ameliorated the airway hyperresponsiveness in patients with asthma [7, 8]. In this context, our results strongly suggested that the blockade of α₁-adrenergic receptor by prazosin may also be useful in the treatment of anaphylaxis by potentiating the therapeutic efficacy of adrenaline. However, to exert such effects, prazosin with doses much higher than those of the physiological concentration was required (Fig. 6A), which can deteriorate hypotension due to the blockade of vascular α₁-adrenergic receptors [48]. In such cases, the use of omalizumab or talizumab that directly inhibits the binding of IgE to FcεRI may be considered [49], since these reagents are more selective to immune systems compared to prazosin.

As we have shown in our patch-clamp studies, the elevation of the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) primarily triggers exocytosis in mast cells [14]. According to previous studies using human lung mast cells, the elevation of the [Ca²⁺]_i was primarily ascribable to the activity of Ca²⁺ activated K⁺ channels (Kc_a 3.1), because these channels facilitate the Ca²⁺ influx through store-operated calcium channels (SOCs) [50]. Upon activation, α₁-adrenergic receptors stimulate phospholipase C (PLC) via the coupling of G proteins [51]. This enzymatically cleaves phosphatidylinositol triphosphate (PIP₂) into inositol triphosphate (IP₃) and diacylglycerol (DAG), which leads to the activation of protein kinase C (PKC) [52]. Since PKC is known to stimulate the activity of Kc_a 3.1 [53] or SOC, such as transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) 1 and 6 [54, 55], the upstream blockade of α₁-adrenergic receptor by prazosin, may inhibit the activity of these channels. Such induced decrease in [Ca²⁺]_i was thought to be the mechanism by which prazosin exerts mast cell-stabilizing property. Alternatively, as we previously demonstrated in anti-allergic drugs or macrolide antibiotics [13, 14, 16], highly lipophilic prazosin [56], which is prone to penetrate into the plasma membrane and accumulate there, may have induced membrane stretch in mast cells. Such mechanical stimuli to the membranes would re-arrange the cytoskeletal structures, influencing the activity of the K⁺- or Ca²⁺-channels expressed in mast cells. Consequently, such induced changes in the [Ca²⁺]_i were thought to contribute to the prazosin-induced inhibition of exocytosis.

Conclusion

In summary, this study provided electrophysiological evidence for the first time that adrenaline dose-dependently inhibits the process of exocytosis, confirming its usefulness as a potent mast cell-stabilizer. The pharmacological blockade of α₁-adrenergic receptor by prazosin synergistically potentiated such mast cell-stabilizing property of adrenaline, which is primarily mediated by β₂-adrenergic receptors.

Acknowledgements

NA performed the experiments and analyzed the data. IK designed the experiments, interpreted the results and wrote the paper. HT, YE, KS, TT and MY provided logistical support and advised on the project. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. This work was supported by the Salt Science Research Foundation, No. 2028, the Tojuro Iijima Foundation for Food Science and Technology, No. 2019-12, and Miyagi Kidney Foundation Grant to IK.

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